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mean that they did not walk because they were too tired.
He was too proud to apologise.
She was too weak to lift me.
You also use `too' with an adverb and a `to'-infinitive.
They had been walking too silently to be heard.
She spoke too quickly for me to understand.
5 When you want to say that a situation happens or is possible because someone or something has a sufficient
amount of a quality, you use `enough' after adjectives and adverbs, followed by a `to'-infinitive.
He was old enough to understand.
I could see well enough to know we were losing.
You normally put `enough' in front of a noun, not after it.
I don't think I've got enough information to speak confidently.
6 You also use `and as a result', `and so', or `and therefore' to talk about the result of an action or situation.
He had been ill for six months, and as a result had lost his job.
She was having great difficulty getting her car out, and so I had to move my car to let her out.
We have a growing population and therefore we need more and more food.
You can also put `therefore' after the subject of the clause. For example, you can say `We have a growing population and
we therefore need more food'.
`As a result' and `therefore' can also be used at the beginning of a separate sentence.
In a group, they are not so frightened. As a result, patients reveal their problems more easily.
He lacks money to invest in improving his tools. Therefore he is poor.
You can also put `therefore' after the subject of the separate sentence. For example, you can say `He left us. He
therefore loses his share'.
Unit 99 Contrast clauses
Main points
* These are clauses introduced by `although', `in spite of' and `though'.
* You use contrast clauses when you want to make two statements, and one statement makes the other seem
surprising.
* Contrast clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `although', `in spite of', or `though'.
* A contrast clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The contrast clause can come before or
after the main clause.
1 When you simply want to contrast two statements, you use `although', `though' or `even though'.
Although he was late, he stopped to buy a sandwich.
Though he has lived for years in London, he writes in German.
I used to love listening to her, even though I could only understand about half of what she said.
Sometimes you use words like `still', `nevertheless', or `just the same' in the main clause to add emphasis to the contrast.
Although I was shocked, I still couldn't blame him.
Although his company is profitable, it nevertheless needs to face up to some serious problems.
Although she hated them, she agreed to help them just the same.
When the subject of the contrast clause and the main clause are the same, you can often omit the subject and the verb
`be' in the contrast clause.
Although poor, we still have our pride. (Although we are poor...)
Though dying of cancer, he painted every day. (Though he was dying of cancer...)
2 Another way of making a contrast is to use `despite' or `in spite of', followed by a noun group.
Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends.
In spite of poor health, my father was always cheerful.
WARNING: You say `in spite of' but `despite' without `of'.
3 You can also use an `-ing' form after `despite' or `in spite of'.
Despite working hard, I failed my exams.
Conservative MPs are against tax rises, in spite of wanting lower inflation.
4 You can also use `despite the fact that' or `in spite of the fact that', followed by a clause.
Despite the fact that it sounds like science fiction, most of it is technically possible at this moment.
They ignored this order, in spite of the fact that they would probably get into trouble.
It is possible to omit `that', especially in spoken English.
He insisted on playing, in spite of the fact he had a bad cold.
Unit 100 Manner clauses
Main points
* You use manner clauses to talk about how something is done.
* Manner clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as `as', `as if', `as though', or `like'.
* A manner clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The manner clause always comes after
the main clause.
1 When you want to say how someone does something, or how something is done, you use `as'.
He behaves as he does, because his father was really cruel to him.
The bricks are still made as they were in Roman times.
You often use `just', `exactly', or `precisely' in front of `as' for emphasis.
It swims on the sea floor just as its ancestors did.
I like the freedom to plan my day exactly as I want.
Everything was going precisely as she had planned.
2 When you want to indicate that the information in the manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true,
you use `as if' or `as though'.
Almost as if she'd read his thought, she straightened her back and returned to her seat.
Just act as though everything's normal.
After `as if' or `as though', you often use a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the
information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were' instead of `was'.
You talk about him as if he were dead.
It is Malcolm's 37th birthday, but he and his mother both behave as if he were 7.
3 You also use `the way (that)', `in a way (that)', or `in the way (that)' to talk about how someone does something,
or how something is done.
I was never allowed to sing the way I wanted to.
They did it in a way that I had never seen before.
We make it move in the way that we want it to.
4 You can use `how' in questions and reported questions to talk about the method used to do something, and
sometimes to indicate your surprise that it was possible to do it.
`How did he get in?' - `He broke a window.'
I wondered how he could afford a new car.
See also Unit 68 for more information on `..as if..' and `..as though..'
Sometimes, you can use `how' to talk about the manner in which someone does something.
I watched how he did it, then tried to copy him.
Tell me how he reacted when he saw you.
Unit 101 Changing sentence focus
Main points
* You can sometimes change the focus of a sentence by moving part of the sentence to the front.
* You can also change the focus of a sentence by using an expression such as `The fact is', `The thing is', or
`The problem is'.
* You can also use impersonal `it' to change the focus of a sentence.
1 In most affirmative clauses, the subject of the verb comes first.
They went to Australia in 1956.
I've no idea who it was.
However, when you want to emphasize another part of the sentence, you can put that part first instead.
In 1956 they went to Australia.
Who it was I've no idea.
2 One common way of giving emphasis is by placing an adverbial at the beginning of the sentence.
At eight o'clock I went down for my breakfast.
For years I'd had to hide what I was thinking.
Note that after adverbials of place and negative adverbials, you normally put the subject after the verb.
She rang the bell for Sylvia. In came a girl she had not seen before.
On no account must they be let in.
After adverbials of place, you can also put the subject before the verb. You must do so, if the subject is a pronoun.
The door opened and in she came.
He'd chosen Japan, so off we went to the Japanese Embassy.
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