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ethics. We have postulated that the tension between a peripheral and a central
cult may be tied into conceptions of the numinous and cessative, that the idea
of meditative attainment, sama\patti, represents both psychologically and
socially the individualization of power, and that nirodha represents its flow-
ing out to the environment on both the psychological and social levels. Par-
ticularly interesting is the question of where differing conceptions of soteriol-
ogy exist on this spectrum. These would include, among them, Upanise"adic
conceptions of mokse"a, Hindu and Jaina conceptions of kaivalya, Veda\ntic
conceptions of mokse"a and jêvanmukti, and Therava\da, Maha\ya\na, and
Vajraya\na conceptions of nirva\ne"a and buddhahood.
Meditation, Phenomenology, and the Concept of Sama\dhi 133
ISSUES OF INFLUENCE AND COMPARISON
In order to better understand questions regarding the origin and development
of meditative methods and to demonstrate the validity of the methodological
approach proposed in this study, we have examined the question of influence
in the relationship of Classical Yoga and Buddhism. In particular, we have
examined the manner in which a number of notable scholars have approached
this subject, including Emile Sénart, Louis de la Vallée Poussin, Herman Old-
enburg, Mircea Eliade, Winston King, and others. Out of this discussion ideas
emerge regarding the shared theoretical conceptions of the nature of sama\dhi
and the methods for developing this state as found in the Hindu and Buddhist
traditions. This brings up important questions such as that of superstructure
and whether there can be a technical skill in meditation that is separable from
greater metaphysical and soteriological concerns. Though this question has
been addressed only briefly, it can be argued that it is clear that these tech-
niques are being adapted to suit different contexts, but at the same time these
contexts are not radically different from one another with respect to a number
of foundational soteriological issues.
In the context of the comparison of the Pa\tañjala Yoga system and
selected schools of Indian Buddhism, it is clear that notions of sama\dhi have
been developed in dialogue and discussion with one another, sharing both
pragmatic and philosophical conceptions. Nearly all of the scholars who have
approached this subject have noted the intimate relationship between the
development of meditative ideas in the óramane"ic context and in the Vedic con-
text. Though there is some dispute over the primacy of Vedic versus non-
Vedic traditions and questions regarding the primacy of meditative concepts
in Upanise"adic versus Buddhist contexts, it is clear that the body of knowledge
regarding ascetic techniques is represented systematically, as yoga had a wide
dissemination in the ancient Indian context. Eliade and King have noted how
this question of influence may have played out in the context of a tension
between scholars and practitioners, or in questions about the relative impor-
tance of yogic attainments and the power of analysis and discursive thought.
We have noted how this tension is representative of the relationship between
central and peripheral cults, characterized by the development of mainstream
scholastic interpretations and the shift from the charismatic authority of the
óramane"a context toward the monastic and scholastic authority of mainstream
Hinduism and Buddhism. Scholastic practice, however, should not necessar-
ily be understood to be bereft of an idea of praxis either, however, and it is
clearly the case, as Zahler and Cox have noted, that the boundary between
scholasticism and meditation may be a fluid one in some contexts.
The work of Bronkhorst, Larson, Yamashita, and others has expanded our
understanding of the context in which the Classical Yoga tradition was formed
134 Sama\dhi
in the early centuries of the Common Era. The question of whether or not Clas-
sical Yoga was ever an autonomous tradition of its own and whether or not the
YS itself is a composite text remains a challenge to seeing Classical Yoga as a
unique tradition. If Bronkhorst and Larson are followed, then it would make
more sense to understand the Classical Yoga tradition as the attempt of
Sa\ khya philosophers to wrestle with the challenge of Buddhist Abhidharma
me"
sources and the development of new philosophical trends emerging from this
engagement. However, the question of the roots of the Classical Yoga system
in the Upanise" a
adic context, in the óramane" context, and in the early develop-
ment of the Indian philosophical systems still remains unclear. One element of
this that needs further investigation and elaboration is the question of proto-YS
texts, such as that attributed to Hirane"
yagarbha. Another key issue that may
yield further insights, and that has been pursued to some degree by Bronkhorst
and Chapple, is the possibility of differentiating the viewpoints of the YS and
the YBh. This may help clarify to what degree the YBh stands for a further
development of the thought of the YS and to what degree these two texts are
at parity with one another. Further research clearly needs to be done in exam-
ining both the YS and YBh in light of the contents of the Abhidharmakoóa and
its bha\ ya. Such a study will bring considerably more light to the common
se"
vocabulary of these traditions. As Chakravarti has noted, the relationship
between the development of Abhidharma theory and conceptions in Sa\ khya
me"
remains a subject that may offer considerable revelations about the influence
and pervasion of different theories in Indian philosophy.
It also has been argued that the numinous dimensions of the Classical
Yoga tradition need more attention and exposition. The further development
of the Vedic concepts of tapas and sva\dhya\ya indicates that the Yoga tradition
did not see itself as simply a philosophy of liberation or as simply instruction
in a meditative process. Both the inclusion of ëóvara as being the prototypical
yogin and the conception of the idea of an êse"èadevata\ indicate that the YS is
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